Inclusion
Given the importance of economic inclusion for the development of sustainable economic systems, the EBRD assesses the level of inclusion across a range of market sectors in the countries where it works. This assessment was carried out for the first time last year, and Chapter 5 of the Transition Report 2013 provides a detailed explanation of the rationale behind it, as well as the methodology used. Of the three existing measures of inclusion, only the gender gaps and youth gaps have been updated this year. The regional gaps will be updated once the results of the next Life in Transition Survey – which is scheduled for 2015 – are available.
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Most of the changes in the assessment of gender gaps relate to health services and education. In the area of health services, they result from slight improvements in maternal mortality, particularly in the majority of southern and eastern Mediterranean (SEMED) countries (namely Egypt, Jordan and Morocco), as well as in Georgia, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Russia, Serbia, Turkmenistan and Ukraine. However, Lithuania has been downgraded from small to medium owing to a slight increase in maternal mortality. Meanwhile, three countries (Azerbaijan, Belarus and Uzbekistan) have made some progress in education by closing the gender gap in terms of enrolment in and completion of secondary and tertiary education, leading to upgrades. At the same time, completion rates for primary education have decreased among the female population of Bulgaria, Jordan and Romania, leading to downgrades. In the areas of labour practices, access to finance, and employment and firm ownership, gender gaps remain medium to large overall (particularly in the SEMED countries, where gaps are large across all three dimensions).
As regards youth gaps, most upgrades and downgrades are concentrated in the fields of education, financial inclusion and labour market structure. There have been a few upgrades in terms of the quality and quantity of education, driven by better PISA scores (Albania and Montenegro) or increases in the number of years of schooling (Bulgaria, Jordan, Latvia and Romania). Changes to the flexibility of hiring, firing and wage determination in the labour market have led to three downgrades (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia and Romania) and two upgrades (Estonia and Hungary). In terms of financial inclusion, changes generally reflect improvements in the area of access to financial services, resulting in just one downgrade (Georgia) and four upgrades (Jordan, Latvia, FYR Macedonia and the Kyrgyz Republic). Opportunities for young people have not changed much in the past year, so gaps remain large in a number of countries, particularly in the SEMED region, as well as south-eastern Europe.
TABLE S.4
TABLE S.5
TABLE S.6
Inclusion gaps for gender
| Legal regulations | Health services | Education | Labour policy | Labour practices | Employment and firm ownership | Access to finance | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Central Europe and the Baltic states | |||||||
| Croatia | Negligible | Small | Negligible | Medium | Large | Small | Small |
| Estonia | Negligible | Small | Negligible | Small | Large | Medium | Medium |
| Hungary | Negligible | Small | Negligible | Negligible | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| Latvia | Small | Medium | Negligible | Small | Large | Medium | Small |
| Lithuania | Negligible | Medium | Negligible | Small | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| Poland | Small | Small | Negligible | Small | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| Slovak Republic | Small | Small | Negligible | Small | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| Slovenia | Negligible | Small | Negligible | Small | Medium | Medium | Small |
| South-eastern Europe | |||||||
| Albania | Negligible | Medium | Small | Small | Large | Large | Large |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | Negligible | Medium | Negligible | Medium | Large | Large | Medium |
| Bulgaria | Negligible | Small | Small | Small | Large | Medium | Medium |
| Cyprus | Not available | Medium | Negligible | Not available | Not available | Small | Large |
| FYR Macedonia | Small | Medium | Small | Small | Large | Medium | Medium |
| Kosovo | Not available | Not available | Not available | Not available | Not available | Not available | Large |
| Montenegro | Small | Medium | Negligible | Medium | Large | Medium | Medium |
| Romania | Negligible | Medium | Small | Small | Large | Medium | Medium |
| Serbia | Small | Small | Negligible | Medium | Large | Large | Small |
| Turkey | Small | Small | Medium | Small | Large | Large | Large |
| Eastern Europe and the Caucasus | |||||||
| Armenia | Medium | Medium | Negligible | Small | Large | Large | Medium |
| Azerbaijan | Negligible | Medium | Negligible | Medium | Large | Medium | Large |
| Belarus | Small | Small | Negligible | Medium | Large | Small | Medium |
| Georgia | Small | Medium | Negligible | Small | Large | Medium | Small |
| Moldova | Small | Small | Negligible | Small | Large | Small | Medium |
| Ukraine | Small | Small | Negligible | Small | Large | Medium | Medium |
| Russia | Small | Small | Negligible | Medium | Large | Medium | Medium |
| Central Asia | |||||||
| Kazakhstan | Small | Medium | Negligible | Medium | Large | Large | Medium |
| Kyrgyz Republic | Medium | Large | Negligible | Medium | Large | Medium | Small |
| Mongolia | Small | Medium | Negligible | Medium | Large | Medium | Small |
| Tajikistan | Medium | Large | Medium | Small | Large | Medium | Large |
| Turkmenistan | Large | Medium | Small | Medium | Large | Large | Not available |
| Uzbekistan | Medium | Medium | Small | Medium | Large | Large | Large |
| Southern and eastern Mediterranean | |||||||
| Egypt | Medium | Medium | Medium | Medium | Large | Large | Large |
| Jordan | Medium | Medium | Small | Medium | Large | Large | Large |
| Morocco | Medium | Medium | Medium | Medium | Large | Large | Large |
| Tunisia | Small | Medium | Small | Small | Large | Large | Large |
| Comparator countries | |||||||
| France | Negligible | Small | Negligible | Small | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| Germany | Negligible | Small | Negligible | Negligible | Medium | Small | Medium |
| Italy | Negligible | Small | Negligible | Small | Medium | Large | Large |
| Sweden | Negligible | Small | Negligible | Negligible | Medium | Small | Medium |
| United Kingdom | Negligible | Small | Negligible | Small | Medium | Medium | Medium |
Source: EBRD.
Note: Methodological changes have been made in the following areas: employment and firm ownership, access to finance and labour practices. These are driven mainly by amendments to the BEEPS questionnaire. Please refer to the methodological notes in the online version of this Transition Report (tr.ebrd.com) for further details.
Inclusion gaps for youth
| Labour market structure | Opportunities for youth | Quantity of education | Quality of education | Financial inclusion | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Central Europe and the Baltic states | |||||
| Croatia | Medium | Large | Small | Medium | Medium |
| Estonia | Small | Medium | Negligible | Medium | Small |
| Hungary | Medium | Medium | Negligible | Small | Medium |
| Latvia | Small | Medium | Negligible | Medium | Small |
| Lithuania | Medium | Medium | Small | Medium | Large |
| Poland | Medium | Medium | Small | Medium | Medium |
| Slovak Republic | Medium | Large | Small | Large | Medium |
| Slovenia | Medium | Small | Small | Small | Negligible |
| South-eastern Europe | |||||
| Albania | Medium | Large | Small | Medium | Negligible |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | Medium | Large | Medium | Not available | Small |
| Bulgaria | Small | Large | Negligible | Medium | Small |
| Cyprus | Small | Large | Small | Medium | Medium |
| FYR Macedonia | Medium | Large | Medium | Large | Small |
| Kosovo | Not available | Not available | Not available | Not available | Not available |
| Montenegro | Medium | Large | Small | Medium | Medium |
| Romania | Small | Large | Negligible | Medium | Small |
| Serbia | Small | Large | Large | Medium | Large |
| Turkey | Medium | Large | Large | Medium | Large |
| Eastern Europe and the Caucasus | |||||
| Armenia | Small | Large | Small | Medium | Negligible |
| Azerbaijan | Medium | Large | Small | Large | Small |
| Belarus | Not available | Medium | Negligible | Not available | Medium |
| Georgia | Small | Large | Negligible | Medium | Medium |
| Moldova | Medium | Large | Small | Large | Negligible |
| Ukraine | Medium | Small | Small | Large | Negligible |
| Russia | Medium | Medium | Negligible | Medium | Medium |
| Central Asia | |||||
| Kazakhstan | Small | Medium | Small | Large | Medium |
| Kyrgyz Republic | Medium | Large | Medium | Large | Negligible |
| Mongolia | Small | Medium | Large | Not available | Small |
| Tajikistan | Medium | Medium | Small | Not available | Negligible |
| Turkmenistan | Not available | Not available | Small | Not available | Negligible |
| Uzbekistan | Not available | Not available | Small | Not available | Small |
| Southern and eastern Mediterranean | |||||
| Egypt | Medium | Large | Large | Not available | Negligible |
| Jordan | Small | Large | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| Morocco | Medium | Large | Large | Large | Medium |
| Tunisia | Medium | Large | Large | Large | Small |
| Comparator countries | |||||
| France | Medium | Medium | Negligible | Small | Medium |
| Germany | Medium | Negligible | Small | Small | Negligible |
| Italy | Medium | Large | Negligible | Medium | Large |
| Sweden | Medium | Medium | Small | Small | Small |
| United Kingdom | Small | Medium | Small | Small | Negligible |
Source: EBRD.
Note: Methodological changes have been made in the following areas: opportunities for youth and financial inclusion. These are driven mainly by the availability of new data. Please refer to the methodological notes in the online version of this Transition Report (tr.ebrd.com) for further details.
Inclusion gaps for regions
| Institutions | Access to services | Labour markets | Education | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Central Europe and the Baltic states | ||||
| Croatia | Medium | Medium | Small | Medium |
| Estonia | Small | Medium | Negligible | Small |
| Hungary | Medium | Small | Large | Small |
| Latvia | Small | Medium | Small | Medium |
| Lithuania | Medium | Large | Small | Small |
| Poland | Medium | Medium | Medium | Small |
| Slovak Republic | Medium | Small | Medium | Small |
| Slovenia | Small | Negligible | Small | Small |
| South-eastern Europe | ||||
| Albania | Medium | Medium | Large | Small |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | Large | Large | Large | Small |
| Bulgaria | Medium | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| Cyprus | Not available | Not available | Not available | Not available |
| FYR Macedonia | Small | Medium | Large | Large |
| Kosovo | Medium | Large | Large | Small |
| Montenegro | Medium | Medium | Large | Small |
| Romania | Medium | Large | Medium | Medium |
| Serbia | Large | Medium | Large | Large |
| Turkey | Medium | Large | Medium | Large |
| Eastern Europe and the Caucasus | ||||
| Armenia | Medium | Medium | Large | Medium |
| Azerbaijan | Medium | Small | Large | Small |
| Belarus | Medium | Negligible | Small | Negligible |
| Georgia | Negligible | Large | Large | Medium |
| Moldova | Medium | Large | Large | Large |
| Ukraine | Medium | Medium | Medium | Small |
| Russia | Medium | Small | Small | Medium |
| Central Asia | ||||
| Kazakhstan | Small | Small | Medium | Medium |
| Kyrgyz Republic | Medium | Large | Medium | Small |
| Mongolia | Negligible | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| Tajikistan | Medium | Large | Large | Small |
| Turkmenistan | Not available | Not available | Not available | Not available |
| Uzbekistan | Large | Medium | Large | Large |
| Southern and eastern Mediterranean | ||||
| Egypt | Not available | Not available | Not available | Large |
| Jordan | Not available | Not available | Not available | Small |
| Morocco | Not available | Not available | Not available | Large |
| Tunisia | Not available | Not available | Not available | Not available |
| Comparator countries | ||||
| France | Negligible | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| Germany | Negligible | Large | Negligible | Medium |
| Italy | Large | Medium | Negligible | Small |
| Sweden | Medium | Small | Small | Small |
| United Kingdom | Medium | Small | Small | Large |
Source: EBRD.
Note: Please note that the regional gaps have not been updated this year, as they are largely based on the results of the EBRD-World Bank Life in Transition Survey, the next round of which is scheduled for 2015.